Factors in the Evolution to Bipedalism - 766 Words

The evolution of the human species has significantly changed during the course of evolution to what is now the modern day Homo sapiens. Some of the changes that have occurred through the evolution are bipedalism, changes in body features such as brow ridges, and an increase in brain capacity. Bipedalism is a form of locomotion that is on two feet and is the one factor that separates humans from other forms of hominoids. The first bipeds are believed to have lived in Africa between 5 and 8 million years ago. (Haviland et al. 2011, pg. 78). The evolution to bipedalism resulted in various anatomical changes. To be able to balance on two legs, the skull must be centered over the spinal column. As bipeds evolved, the foramen†¦show more content†¦Heavy lifting causes a strain on the back and can lead to back problems. Other back problems such as scoliosis, herniated disks, and pinched nerves are all results of bipedalism. (Ackerman). The evolution to bipedalism resulted in the narrowing of the pelvis. This narrowing was necessary for locomotion, but it increased the difficulty of childbirth for women. In other primates, birth is relatively easy. Babies come through a straight birth canal and are born facing their mothers. The mother can pull the baby out during birth without causing injury to spine of the baby. The human female pelvis is now smaller and babies are forced to be born facing away from the mother. Assistance is needed during birth to prevent injury to the babys spine. The birth canal is curved and there is barely enough room for the passing of the head and shoulders. (Ackerman). Three adaptive characteristics of early humans that are not present in modern humans are heavy brow ridges, sagittal crests, and facial prognathism. All of these characteristics were influenced by the change in diet of humans. Heavy brow ridges, or supraorbital ridges, are the bony ridges located above the eyes on primates. It is believed that early man had very pronounced brow ridges to reinforce the facial structure during chewing. As man evolved, their diets changed to softer foodsShow MoreRelatedBipedalism : What Is That All About?1114 Words   |  5 Pages Bipedalism: What is that all about? The issue at hand in these articles is the evidence for the development of bipedalism in hominids. Bipedalism seems to be one of the most important factors in the evolution of mankind and therefore the surrounding debate is rife with various hypotheses as to the background of this development in hominid evolutionary history. Although each of the three articles reviewed in this essay make different arguments, each seem to be cogent in their own way and do seemRead MoreWhy Do Primates Free Their Hands? How Is Walking Upright More Energy Efficient?806 Words   |  4 Pagesmoving with only two legs is the result of millions of years of evolution and adaptation. During the process of human evolution, the appearance of bipedalism, which describes the terrestrial locomotion where animals move with their rear limbs in the form of walking, hopping or running, is considered as one of the major steps that sets Hominin group apart from other primates. Even though the transition from quadrupeda lism to bipedalism has major drawbacks that sacrifice the flexibility and preventRead MoreHominids Development of Bipedalism Essay616 Words   |  3 PagesHominids Development of Bipedalism Approximately 4 million years ago a wonderful evolutionary phenomenon was happening in Africa. Early hominids, man’s ancestors, were beginning a giant leap in their evolution. These hominids were moving out of the forest and beginning to walk upright, out on the open plains (Fagan, 98). This change from quadrupedalism was the most significant adaptation that ever happened to these early hominids. It caused many adaptations that make man what he is todayRead MoreHuman Evolutionary Traits and Behjaviours: Bipedalism Essay1319 Words   |  6 Pagestraits and behaviours, the exact forces that specifically promoted bipedalism are still difficult to determine. Controversy lies with the suggestion that bipedalism arose from as early as 5.8 million years ago, in the late Miocene era, but it can be scientifically defined that the first definite bipedal hominin was the Australopithecus anamensis in the Pliocene. These findings suggest that at 3.9-2.9 million years ago, bipedalism was evolving; certain conditions acted as influences upon the homininsRead MoreAnth106 Lit Review1309 Words   |  6 PagesLiterature Review Main Article: The Advantage of Standing Up to fight and the Evolution of Habitual Bipedalism in Hominins Citation: Carrier, D.R. 2011, The Advantage of Standing Up to fight and the Evolution of Habitual Bipedalism in Hominins, PloS ONE, vol. 6, no. 5, May, viewed 5 September 2012, Web of Science Database. The aim of this study was to determine whether assuming a bipedal stance, will provide an advantage for striking with forelimbs. Results were determined through humanRead MoreConflict Between The Multiple Theories Of Bipedalism2156 Words   |  9 PagesConflict Between the Multiple Theories of Bipedalism Why early hominins, the evolutionary ancestors of Homo sapiens, originally became bipedal is a source of contention among many physical anthropologists both today and in the past. There are multiple theories and models that have surfaced over the years to explain why these early hominins evolved to become bipedal, but because there is limited fossil evidence and very few intact pelvises from that time period to study, it’s difficult to conclusivelyRead MoreSpeech : A Comparison Between Human And Primates1660 Words   |  7 Pagescomes to evolution, humans evolved from apes. The first putative hominin is Sahelanthropus tchadensis from Chad, which is about 6-7 million years old, as noted by Michel Brunet among others in their 2002 paper in Nature, while our closest living relative to the Homo sapiens is the chimpanzee, yet chimps do not have speech which indicates some degree of genetic divergence. Molecular data suggest that humans and chimpanzees diverged from a common an cestor ~5-7 million years ago. Another factor supportingRead MoreEssay on The History of Human Evolution1517 Words   |  7 PagesThe History of Human Evolution By definition, human evolution is the development, both biological and cultural, of humans. Human ideologies of how the evolution of man came to be is determined by cultural beliefs that have been adopted by societies going back as far as the Upper Paleolithic era, some 40,000 years ago. Through the study of paleoanthropology, we have come to determine that a human is any member belonging to the species of Homo Sapiens. Paleoanthropologists, while studyingRead MoreComplication Of Birth.1575 Words   |  7 Pagesreceived. The amount of nutrition received is the biggest factor with regard to the change in brain size. Therefore, the sufficient nutrition increased the size of the brain. In result, the increased brain size created advanced cognitive functions. Culture nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp; In chapter eight quot;Early Hominisquot; of the textbook, quot;Introduction to Cultural Anthropologyquot; by Conrad Phillip Kottak discussed bipedalism traditionally has been viewed as an adaptation tobopenRead MoreUner Tan Syndrome: The Ulas Family Essay1653 Words   |  7 Pagesthis family could shed some light on human evolution, and the transition into bipedalism. Initially, the physical manifestations of the syndrome seemed to support this claim. The first hint was the fact that the affected individuals walked with what is described as a diagonal-sequence quadrupedal gait. This is an unusual footfall pattern for mammals, but it is common in ancestral primates (Lemelin, Schmitt, and Cartmill 423). The habitual bipedalism that is observed in modern humans is less

American Spirit Volume I - 3787 Words

The ^American Spirit United States History as Seen by Contemporaries Ninth Edition Volume I: To 1877 Houghton Mifflin Company Boston New YorkContents 1 2 Preface xxi New World Beginnings, 33,000 B.C.-A.D.1769 1 A. The Native Americans 1 1. Visualizing the New World (1505, 1509) 1 2. Juan Gines de Sepulveda Belittles the Indians (1547) 3 3. Bartoleme de Las Casas Defends the Indians (1552) 4 B. The Spanish in America 6 1. Hernan Cortes Conquers Mexico (1519-1526) 6 2. Aztec Chroniclers Describe the Spanish Conquest of Mexico (1519) 3- Francisco Coronado Explores the American Southwest (1541) 13 4. Don Juan de Onate Conquers New Mexico (1599) 14 C. The African Slave Trade 17 1. Mungo Park Describes Slavers in the African Interior (c. 1790)†¦show more content†¦A Swede Depicts the Indian Trade (1749) 103 B. The French and Indian War 105 1. Benjamin Franklin Characterizes General Edward Braddock (1755) 105 2. A Frenchman Reports Braddocks Defeat (1755) 107 3. Francis Parkman Analyzes the Conflict (1884) 108 C. A New Restlessness 220 1. Andrew Burnaby Scoffs at Colonial Unity (1760) 110 2. A Lawyer Denounces Search Warrants (1761) 212ViU Contents 7 8 The Road to Revolution, 1763-1775 114 A. The Burden of Mercantilism 224 1. Virginia Resents Restrictions (1671) 124 2. Adam Smiths Balance Sheet (1776) 115 B. The Tempest over Taxation 117 1. Benjamin Franklin Testifies Against the Stamp Act (1766) 117 2. Philadelphia Threatens Tea Men (1773) 119 3. Connecticut Decries the Boston Port Act (1774) 120 C. Britain at the Crossroads 221 1. Dean Josiah Tucker Advises a Divorce (1774) 122 2. Adam Smith Criticizes Empire (1776) 123 3. Samuel Johnson Urges the Iron Fist (1775) 124 4. Two Views of the British Empire (1767, 1775) 126 D. Loyalists Versus Patriots 128 1. Daniel Leonard Deplores Rebellion (1775) 128 2. Patrick Henry Demands Boldness (1775) 129 3. New Yorkers Abuse Tories (1775) 130 E. The Clash of Arms 232 1. Conflicting Versions of the Outbreak (1775) 132 2. Franklin Embittered by Bloodshed (1775) 232 3. Why an Old Soldier Fought (1898) 232 America Secedes from the Empire, 1775-1783 135 A. General Washington in Command 235 1. Washington Scorns Independence (1775) 235 2. WashingtonsShow MoreRelatedThe Motivations Of The Founding Fathers1257 Words   |  6 Pagesand the way they dealt with things when they started to get out of hand. I looked at the writings of John P Roche, Barbour and Wright, and Jim Webb, to get a scholarly opinion of what forced the founders to make certain decisions during the constitutional convention. According to Keeping The Republic: Power and Citizenship in American Politics, Barbour and Rights states â€Å" Many of the delegates represented the elite of American society – wealthy lawyers, speculators, merchants, planters, and investorsRead MoreThe Choctaw Tribe Essay1330 Words   |  6 Pagesorigins in their traditional homeland in central Mississippi. One is that their ancestors came from west of the Mississippi River and settled in what is now the homeland. The other is that the tribe is descended from ancestors who were formed by a spirit from the damp earth of Nanih Waiyah, a large mound in northeastern Mis sissippi. Either way, the Choctaws resided in places, holding most of Southern Alabama and Mississippi with adjoining parts of Louisiana. The Choctaws had a strong tradition ofRead MoreThe Choctaw Tribe1331 Words   |  6 Pagesorigins in their traditional homeland in central Mississippi. One is that their ancestors came from west of the Mississippi River and settled in what is now the homeland. The other is that the tribe is descended from ancestors who were formed by a spirit from the damp earth of Nanih Waiyah, a large mound in northeastern Mississippi. Either way, the Choctaws resided in places, holding most of Southern Alabama and Mississippi with adjoining parts of Louisiana. The Choctaws had a strong tradition ofRead MoreLeaves Of Grass By Walt Whitman915 Words   |  4 PagesGrass is collection of poems written by an American poet named Walt Whitman. The first edition was published in 1855 but, Whitman spent most of his professional life writing and rewriting Leaves of Grass, until his death in 1892 at the age of 72. Even though during the time his work was considered immoral later people began to realize the beauty behind his poems and started to appreciate the man who wrote them.Whitman s Leaves of Grass is iconic in American poetry because of the beauty behind itsRead More i too sing America Essay985 Words   |  4 Pagescreative structure and style of poetry creates a different form of writing that can either have rhythm, alliteration or have a direct message. In the poem â€Å"I Too Sing America†, by Langston Hughes had a significant message in that he desired to voice his expression on the issue of black oppression in America. Langston b asic themes focused on the American Dream and the possibilities of hope and advancement were constantly present in his poetry. The tension between the unrealized dream and the realities ofRead MoreI Too Sing America999 Words   |  4 Pagescreative structure and style of poetry creates a different form of writing that can either have rhythm, alliteration or have a direct message. In the poem I Too Sing America, by Langston Hughes had a significant message in that he desired to voice his expression on the issue of black oppression in America. Langston basic themes focused on the American Dream and the possibilities of hope and advancement were constantly present in his poetry. The tension between the unrealized dream and the realities ofRead MoreEssay on Langston Hughes a Harlem Renaissance Man1463 Words   |  6 Pages The beginning of the 20th century many African Americans migrated from the south to the north in what we call today, the Great Migration. 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(Steinbeck 1)    In Angelous first novel, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, she examines how a bird (soul) that is caged (unfree) would still sing.   I was curious aboutRead More Langston Hughes Essay1464 Words   |  6 Pageswith nearly every famous actor, writer, painter, or musician; including the ever-famous Langston Hughes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In order for a person to really understand how Mr. Hughes’s life shaped his poetry, one must know all about his background. In this paper, I will write a short biography of Hughes’s life and tell how this helped accent his literary genius. Langston Hughes was born in Joplin, Missouri, but lived with his grandmother in Lawrence, Kansas until he was thirteen. This arrangement was necessaryRead MoreWalt Whitman s Life And Accomplishments1731 Words   |  7 Pagesgrass himself and send a copy to Emerson in July 1855. 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Historiography/Primary Sources Project Free Essays

â€Å"Every empire tells itself and the world that it is unlike all other empires and that its mission is not to plunder and control but to educate and liberate† is a quote by Edward W. Said. During the 19th century, Western nations started expansion into territorial imperialism to collect resources from colonies to benefit economically, politically, and socially. We will write a custom essay sample on Historiography/Primary Sources Project or any similar topic only for you Order Now Jules Ferry, a former French prime minister, created a colonial policy to colonize territories for France’s benefits and to civilize the people in those territories. His biased views may affect the historical impact and people should not believe everything they hear. One should analyze a document and take past knowledge on the issue into consideration before making any decisions. â€Å"The French Colonial Expansion† is a modernized text of the â€Å"Speech Before the French Chamber of Deputies† by the former French prime minister, Jules Francois Camille Ferry, on March 28, 1884. Jules Ferry made this speech to show his support for imperialism and that it was the only way, at the time, for a nation to be powerful. He believed that the colonial expansion policy consisted of economic ideas, the most far-reaching ideas of civilization, and ideas of a political and patriotic sort (Watts, Int. ). He backed his argument up with some statistics of how other nations, like Germany or the United States of America, have outlets, or colonies to export goods to, and this helped expand their market. Colonial policy will allow for France to compete against other powerful nations and help solve problems like the freedom of trade and supply and demand (Arkenberg, Int. ). Not only did Ferry want to maintain France’s power, he also believed that Europeans were the â€Å"superior race† because they were civilized. A social issue he wanted to overcome was to civilize the â€Å"inferior races† because it was the higher races’ duty to do so (Arkenberg, Int. . In addition, Ferry made a good point that France needs colonies to support its navy with harbors, defenses, and supplies that can only be obtained overseas. Ferry was for imperialism because it had many benefits to the nation. However, many socialists and conservative critics were against his policy for differe nt reasons (Jules, Int. ). He was addressing his speech to those that opposed imperialism and the French Chamber of Deputies. His motivation was to spread the ideas of imperialism and point out the benefits of it to the people of France. Obviously, he has a lot of pride in his country because he believes that they are the superior race,† so he wants to spread the feel of nationalism by gaining power to France (Watts, Int. ). The power of a nation is gained by the amount of land it has. The colonial policy led France to annex Tunis, Madagascar, Indo-China, and explore the Congo and the Niger region (Jules, Int. ). Based on all of the exploration done by France, one can conclude that France is a powerful nation and its colonial policy went into effect. They were great competitors with other Europeans and the United States because they took over many rich African and Asian countries. With all of their new territories, they would have a better market because they would have raw materials sent to them from those countries, and they would sell them back (Arkenberg, Int. ). In addition, the French have a lot of pride in themselves because they believe that they are the â€Å"superior race,† so they would try to civilize the people in many of their territories. Therefore, the local culture of those countries probably went down and there was a lot of hatred towards the French for the change of their way of living, style, and religion. Because Jules Ferry believed that the Europeans were a â€Å"superior race,† this proves that he was biased because he only looked at the European view of imperialism. He only sees that the colonial policy will benefit and solve France’s economic, social, and political problems. However, he doesn’t look at the view of the African and Asian countries being claimed. To them, imperialism is a horrible thing because their way of life is being taken away and replaced by a different life style. Also, imperialism would stop their learning curve and affect their nation’s development. New problems would arise as well. For example, after the division of African territory between each European nation, African tribes were moved and this created more fights between them. Ferry also leaves out the conflicts between the European nations and the U. S. Imperialism is not always beneficial to a nation because there would always be arguments between two or more nations over land, and war would erupt if the issue is non-negotiable. Edward W. Said’s quote, â€Å"every empire tells itself and the world that it is unlike all other empires and that its mission is not to plunder and control but to educate and liberate† shows that Jules Ferry is biased because he is only presenting the benefits to France and not the problems that it could do to the colonized territories or to Western nations all together. One should never completely believe everything they hear and analysis is needed to see both sides of a story. How to cite Historiography/Primary Sources Project, Papers